Reveal and Express

我的最新日志

  • Bepuzzlement

    2007-11-14

    I feel a little tired this week, not physical tire, but psychic tire.

    Maybe because nearing two days I was not as busy as before, so I thought much more than usual. I feel puzzling, I do not know what is my aim of my work and life, I am afraid of my future, I do not know what will happen next... I hope I can talk with someone and someone can help me...However no one in fact. My boyfriend plays games on computer whenever he has time. I hate games, I really regret we bought computer. Before we bought the computer, he was very kind to me and hard working, hard studying, we are happy everyday, however computer changed everything.

    I know he is even more puzzling than me now, many things need him to think over, however he can talk with me, we can consult with each other and find the way out. The base of love is exchanging two persons' thoughts from time to time, I think. But he would not. He would not like to talk with me. I do not know what is wrong. I had tried my best to make our life more and more colorful, but I need his help, without his help I can do nothing.

  • Gift to Future Grandson

    2007-11-12

    Today I had received one best and surprised present, but it is not to me, it is to my son or daughter! From my dear father to my future child!!!

    I still have not married, but my father had already prepared present for my child, to be frank, I am really moved, thought the present is not costly, but it is my father's love and it is the best thing my father can give me, he always would like to give me everything he has!!!

    My father's health is always not in good condition, I am always worried a lot about him, but my father thought much more for me, he always consider my life, my work, my fiance...everything...The first time I sent him RMB 600 for his daily use, however he use the money to buy the present for my future child!!!

    Mother's love is the greatest love in the world, so does father's love, God will bless all mothers and fathers worldwide in good condition and many happy returns!!!

  • Puzzle in Peacefull Life

    2007-11-12

    These last few days, I feel puzzling...

    Everyday, I begin to work from a.m.9:00 and ended at p.m.6:00, then prepare dinner, have dinner, take a bath and shampoo, wash clothes, watch TV, and go to bed...Nothing changed!

    However I like this kind of peaceful life, as a matter of fact, life is simple and without pretension, in my eyes, if life is one kind of color, then it is pure white, but not colors. I am a person who is easy to be satisfied, however I am afraid if I do not try to change the present life, I will lose my peaceful life soon.

    The world is full of competition and challenge, and there are too many people who are much more excellent than me, and they are working and studying hard to let themselves more and more outstanding...

    I had tasted the great fear and pressure...I know I had to work and study hard to overcome all the difficulties, I had made many good plans, however I always have many excuses to escape from my planned life and idle away my time...Maybe in many peoples eyes, overcome this kind of problem is easy and I am ridiculous, however sometimes it is very strange that a simple problem is not so easy to be solved!!!

    How can I save myself, who can help me ?

  • The Princess The Bride

    2007-10-31

    How time flies!!! I had been graduated from University for more than two years!!!Along with the time passed, so does our youth, puerility, simplicity and our light-hearted days...We lose a lot, however we can earn more---we will be our prince's princess and bride!!!

    Until now, more than four classmates declared that they had engaged themselves to their princes and they will become the princess and bride soon...They show me their honey photos and MTV, and I could not deny that the most beautiful woman is the woman who is a bride, when they are brides they are princesses!!!

    I must admit I admire them a lot, however I am too level-headed and realistic, there are no time for me to be princess and bride, we must work hard to create a more superior interspace for the pricess, and the princess forever.

  • What can I do for you...

    2007-10-31

    It has been more than one month, I have not writen my blog. Today I had read one article writen by my boyfriend, then all kinds of feelings come into my mind...

    We had recognized each other for more than 12 years, there are no one else in the world who can know him better than me, so dose he know me better than anyone else.And during this twelve years, I have never doubted that he is an excellent man, especially in his study and working, I am always sure he will be outstanding and succeed sooner or later.

    However now he is not so happy, I think, because of his company institution. He is an excellent salesman, however he could not make any the decision!!! I am so eager that I can do something for my lover, however I found I can do nothing...

    My dear, please believe me, the bright future will come soon, and whatever happens, I will be always on your side and support you.

  • Perfect Money

    2007-9-29

    When I was a young girl, I knew money was very important. That was because my father was wrapped up in gambling when I was young, from gamesters I found everyone was eager to gain more and more money, and without money they would be in deep affliction...

    Some years later, I was in the Middle school, I tasted the feeling of without money by myself...At that period, my father failed in business, and there were too many unfortunate matters happened to us...Even RMB10.00 Yuan per week was a heavy burden for my mother...I could not eat my fill and say nothing of beautifull clothing which my classmates had and I admired...

    Whether or not, I graduated and went to University, then I experienced even more hard time because of without money, as the University tuition fee was much more expensive than Middle school, and I must live in university everyday, so I needed more cost of living...However as saying goes:"every coin has its two sides", because of that hard period, I know how great my father and my mother are!!! If they have RMB100.00 yuan, they are willing to give me 100.00 Yuan...

    No matter how hard the time was, I finally passed it--I graduated from University and found a job in 2005. However the first month my salary was just RMB 800.00 Yuan, it was even too less for my own cost of living in Xiamen, because I needed to rent house, I needed to buy food, I needed traffic fee...Everything need money, so the first year of my working time, it was also not too easy for me...

    Now I am working in one foreign capital company in Shanghai, my salary is a little more than RMB 5000.00 Yuan, however I still feel the money is not enought every month...maybe that is because the high consume and the high pressure to live in Shanghai...

    Ohh my God, what is the end of without money??? But on the other hand, I think without money also make our life much more colorful and give us the enthusiasm to work hard and pursue our aim every minute, everyday, every year through all our lifes...

    So here I would like to share the happiness of enjoying so many kinds of money with you...

    美元(正面)

    美元(背面)

    欧元

    俄罗斯卢布

    法郎

    日元

    越南盾

    港币

    中国台湾元

    中国澳门元

    哥伦比亚比索

    圭亚那元

    加拿大元

    罗马尼亚列伊

    蒙古图隔里拉

    南非兰特

    葡萄牙埃斯库多

    瑞士法郎

    圣美多和普林西比多布拉

    苏里南盾

    西班牙比赛塔

    印度卢比

    意大利里拉

    印度尼西亚卢比(盾)

    英镑

    人民币

    韩元

    泰国铢

    爱尔兰镑

    巴布亚新几内亚基

    哈萨克斯坦里格

    马尔代夫菲亚特

    缅甸元

    挪威克朗

    沙特阿拉伯亚尔

    圣马力诺意大利里拉

    塔吉克斯坦索莫尼

    土耳其里拉

  • Most Beautiful Nine Places in the world

    2007-9-25

    I am a girl who like travelling around the world...However I need to work and I do not have enough money to let my dream come true at present...So I enjoy my travelling through CCTV TRAVELLING CHANNEL and through internet...Today I was really shocked by those Beautiful photos on the internet, so here share with you--my friends... 

    Bora Bora Island --- The Pearl of Pacific Ocean --- Most Beautiful Island in the world

    Disney Castle in Hong Kong

    Beauty in Austria

    Country Beauty in Winter Holand

    Florence River

    Holand Canal In Autumn

    Switzerland In Autumn

    Europe Campus

    Night Piece of Ginza Japan

  • On the Social Functions of English Euphemism

    2007-9-19

    浅谈英语委婉语之社会功能

    READER

    XXX 大学  外语系

    2000级英语本科<5>

    摘要:委婉语是人类社会中普遍存在的一种语言现象,是用语言来调剂人际关系的一个重要手段,它的使用具有重要的社会功能,最主要的有美化功能、避讳功能、掩饰功能、积极功能与礼貌功能。充分认识英语委婉语的社会功能,将有助于我们更准确地理解它,并恰如其分地使用它。

    关键词:英语、委婉语、社会功能。

    On the Social Functions of

     

    English Euphemism

    READER

    Class 5, Graduate 2000,

    Department of foreign languages and literature,

    XXX UNIVERSITY

    Abstract: Euphemism is a common existing language phenomenon in human society, which is an important means used to mediate interpersonal relationship. The use of euphemism possesses important social functions: Beautify function, Evasive function, Concealed function, Positive function and Polite function. Fully realizing the significance of social functions of English Euphemism will be conductive to our correct understanding and our proper usage.

    Key Words: English, Euphemism, Social Functions.

     

    一、引言

     

    委婉语作为常用修辞格的一种,是语言中很重要的组成部分,它担负着“润滑”交际的重任。随着社会文明的发展,委婉语更有其不可或缺的地位,因此重视对英语委婉语的学习,特别是对其社会功能的学习将有重大的实践意义和现实意义。近年来,国内外对委婉语的研究有了很大的发展,特别是对委婉语的描写和解释方面取得了很大的成就,相继出现了委婉语词典,语言与语言学词典, Neamanetal等的 kind words: A Thesaurus Of Euphemisms等等,本文试图从委婉语的社会功能出发,作简单的阐述。

     

    二、委婉语的功能

     

    英语委婉语一词“euphemism”源于希腊语,前缀“eu”是“好”(good)的意思,词根“pheme”是“说话”(speech)的意思,合起来意为“说好听的话或善词令”(comfortable words)

    委婉语是人们谈论那些令人不快、尴尬的事情,或日常生活中一些不能说或说了不好的话时,所使用的较委婉、含蓄、礼貌的说法,以避免与人发生冲突、避免使人产生不快,从而达到最佳交际效果。他涉及民族、历史、文化、心理、语境、交际目的等方面。它是一种修辞格,更是一种文化现象。一般认为凡是表示禁忌或敏感事物的含蓄、迂回、曲折或动听的言词,均在委婉语之列。

    大概从人类开始知美丑,辨善恶,而用无花果树叶遮羞时,委婉语就在交际中有了用武之地。由于语言交际是人类赖以维系社会关系和人际关系的重要手段,因而人们在交际中通常避免使用引起双方不快,从而损害双方关系的语言,而采用迂回曲折的方法来表达思想、交流信息。因此委婉语自产生之日起,就担负着“润滑”交际的重任。“如果没有委婉语,世界的运转会因摩擦而停止,人间将充满仇怨。”Huge Rawson也曾指出:“...euphemism are embedded so deeply in our language that few of us, even those who pride themselves on being plain-spoken, ever get through a day without using them.

    可见,委婉语已深深嵌入语言之中,嵌入我们的日常生活和工作中。随着社会文明程度的不断提高,说话技巧和良好的人际关系也将越来越深刻地影响着人们的生活,因而,语言中也将会产生越来越多的委婉语。所以,重视对委婉语的研究具有非常重要的实践意义和现实意义。而只有对委婉语,特别是英语中较为广泛的用法进行细心的研究,熟悉其在社会交际中的功能,才能更准确地理解它,并恰如其分地使用它。

    以下就从五大方面对生活中常见的委婉语的社会功能做简单的介绍:

     

    《一》美化功能

     

    在生活中,为了维护他人的自尊,避免刺激和伤害他人,应当避免使用一些带有歧视性质的词语(如与他人职业、性别、身心健康有关的词语),避免使用表示人体生理缺陷和其他缺点、弱点、等有可能威胁他人尊严的词语,以保证交往的顺利进行。由此也就产生了委婉语的美化功能。此功能体现在五个方面:

    (1)职业美称

    生活中,人们往往避免直言社会地位低下,被人瞧不起的职业,以免卑微工作给从业人员带来精神不安。在提及这些职业的从业者时,人们常用一种含蓄委婉的方式来表达。于是有关职业的委婉语应运而生。英语中有很多职业委婉语,使用职业委婉语的主要目的是为了将传统意义的“低下”职业“体面化”

    委婉语表达职业的方式多种多样,其中一种就是将难听、刺耳的职业美化。如主人向客人介绍家里雇佣的女佣人时说:“our domestic help(家政助理)或“live help(生活助理),这种称呼方式就是一种委婉的表达,虽然意思含糊,但却避免了直言带来的尴尬,也达到了交际的目的,即让女佣人感到亲切愉快。又如那些见不得人的行业,更有许多别称,如把妓女prostitute 称为 lady of the evening(夜间女士), street girl(街上女孩)等。她们把自己做的事叫做business(商务), 甚至叫social service(社会服务)。这类委婉语还有如:janitor(看门人)美其名为security officer(安全官员);把undertaker(焚尸工)称为grief therapist(哀伤治疗专家);把男领班chief waiter 称为captain(首领)等等。

    另一种则是将地位低微,受人歧视的职业人为地拔高。如将cook(厨子)称为chef(烹饪大师)时,其地位立刻由厨子变成了烹饪大师;将餐厅中的waiterwaitress(服务员)称为“dining-room attendants”(餐厅管理员)时,服务员一下荣升为管理员。同样将cobbler(补鞋匠)美称为shoe rebuilder(鞋子修复师)等等,更有甚者屠夫butcher也被冠以美称“肉类技术专家”meat technologist

    再如engineer(工程师)是一个动听的词,于是一大批从事各行各业的人都给自己的工种冠上engineer。修理电话的技工被称为“telephone engineer”(电话工程师);机修工mechanic被化为“automobile engineer”(自动化工程师);garbage man(垃圾清洁工)被美化为“sanitation engineer”(卫生工程师);甚至连空闲在家的家庭主妇也被美称为“domestic engineer”(家政工程师)。

    (2)相貌美称

    委婉语的使用还巧妙地美化了人们身体、容貌的缺陷,从而消除了人们由此导致的自卑、怯懦等心理上的阴影。

    如在身材方面,西方人认为fat(肥胖)是一种病态,因此“肥胖”也属忌讳之列。常见的委婉说法,如plump(“丰满的”指女子),stout, mighty(“壮实的”主要指男子),chubby(“胖乎乎的”常指孩子),heavyset, full-figure(富态),一个肥胖之人穿的衣服是king size,当然人太瘦了也不好。说一位女士skinny,她会生气的,婉转的表达词语是slender, slim, willowy(苗条),svelte(亭亭玉立)等,一位很瘦的男士是lean(精干)。又如在西方国家,说某人相貌较差从不用ugly(丑陋)而是用not prettyplain(不太漂亮)等。

    相貌美称还包括残疾、疾病等方面。俗话说:“当着矮个不提高”,有残疾的人特别在意别人的评论,心理特别脆弱,自尊心特别强,所以委婉语的运用就显得非常必要。例如:把crippled(瘸子)称为physically inconvenienced(行动不便的);把acne(粉刺)称为problem skin(皮肤有问题);把pimple(丘疹)称为blossom(花),beauty spot(美人斑)等。

    (3)商业美称

    在商业性的交际场合中,人们常常会感到直截了当地说出某事显得唐突,需要更换一种间接的、中听的、令人容易接受的方式来表达自己的意思。一些商业服务业在这方面更是竭尽所能,在满足顾客的虚荣心上大做文章,以最大限度地吸引顾客。

    比如某航空公司为了取悦乘客,避免乘坐三等舱的乘客不快,对机舱等级进行美化,把third class(三等舱)更名为tourist class(旅游舱),business class(商务舱),这样即使坐不起一、二等舱,顾客仍然会感到很愉快。

    这方面的委婉语还有如:把second-hand furniture(旧家具)美称为antiques(古董);把second-hand car(二手货汽车)美称为pre-owned car(先前拥有的汽车);把costume jewelry(假首饰)称作fashion jewelry(时尚首饰);把vomit bag(飞机上的呕吐袋)称作For Motion Discomfort(飞机上不适料理)等等。

    (4)贫穷美称

    在西方社会里,贫穷的人没有任何社会地位,因而人们企慕财富,鄙视贫穷,有关“贫穷”的委婉语也就缘由此生。例如:把poor(贫穷)美称为less well off(不太宽裕)、temporarily short of liquidity(临时周转不灵);就连slum(贫民区)也升格为substandard housing(不够标准的住房);slum children也成了culturally different children

    不仅个人如此,各个国家也是如此。在英语里看不到穷国(poor countries)有的只是backward nations(滞后国家)、underdeveloped nations(不发达国家)、developing nations(发展中国家)、emerging nations(新兴国家)。联合国干脆称这些国家为less-developed nations(欠发达国家)。

    (5)失业美称

    只要社会存在竞争,失业现象就不可避免。失业,对于任何人来说都是莫大的打击,然而有关“失业”的委婉语却美化了失业这一现象,给失业者的心理带来莫大的慰藉。例如:把be fired(解雇)美称为be terminated(到期了),be selected out(被选掉了);把unemployment(失业)美称为to be developing a new project(在进行一个新的规划)或to be in a consultancy(当顾问)、to be self-employed(自雇);把unemployed(失业的)美称作unwaged(不发工资的)、the less fortunate(不太幸运的人);把dole cheque(失业救济金)称为unemployment benefit(失业津贴)。此类轻松诙谐的委婉语美化了失业现象,会在很大程度上缓释失业者困惑沮丧的心情。

     

    《二》避讳功能

     

    委婉语的产生与发展与禁忌语休戚相关,在日常生活中,有些词具有无礼、厄运、不祥不吉之意,往往使人产生憎恨、恐惧心理。人们不喜欢更不愿意使用或提及这些词,迫不得已时,使用某种替代词以求避开或淡化原意。

    (1)死亡

    “死”是人类最忌讳的字眼,在东西方社会文化中历来都被视为不吉之事。在言语交际中为了礼貌起见,避免伤害对方,人们尽量避免直接使用它,于是五花八门的委婉语出现了。英语中这类词共有100多种。如:

        breathe one’s last breath(呼进了最后一口气)

        to return to the dust(归入尘土)

        to be taken to paradise(被送进天堂)

        to be gathered to one’s fathers(见老祖宗去)

        hand in one’s accounts(交上自己的帐本)

    又如:go to glory(走向辉煌), go west(上西天), join the majority(加入大多数), pay the debt of nature(还债给自然), to expire(期满)等等。

    以上是对亲朋好友去世时的委婉语说法,而对于各种不同类型的死亡,都有相应的委婉语。如战士战死疆场,用answer the last muster(响应最后的召集), to fall in battle(倒在战场上);教徒死亡用safe in the arms of Jesus(在耶稣的怀抱中安然无恙);淹死可说:to feed the fishes(去喂鱼了);为国捐躯,为正义事业而献身用:to devote oneself to(把自己贡献出), to lay down one’s life for(把自己的生命献出);上绞刑说成: to go up(上升), to dance on a rope(在绳子上跳舞)。 

    死亡是不吉利的事,因此凡与死亡有关的人或事都逐渐带上了委婉色彩。例如:把funeral(葬礼)称为 memorial service(追思礼拜);把graveyard(墓地)称为memory garden(陵园);把hearse(灵车)称作ambulance(救护车);把coffin(棺材)称作casket(珠宝盒)等等。

    (2)年龄

    在西方国家,年龄是个比较敏感的问题。老年人忌讳“老”字,女性忌讳年龄。西方人往往认为“年纪大”“老了”简直就是“没用了”(useless)的同义词。因此常常避免用“old”“aged”等字眼,而用一些悦耳的词代替。Neamanetal曾风趣地阐述了这一现象:在西方国家没有old people(老人),有的只是advanced in age (上了年纪),seasoned man(历练的人)well-preserved man(保养的好的人)等等。老人变成了“政界元老”(elder statesman),起码也是“年长公民”(senior citizen);或者闪烁其词曰:“养老金领取者”(old age pensioner)甚至再缩略,含含糊糊简称为“OAP”。他们并非“老”,而是“生活经历较长”(longer living),因而倍受称赞,明明是风烛残年,却美其名曰“黄金年华”(golden years)。怕“老”已成为整个西方世界的社会心理定势。 此类委婉语还有如:mature people(成熟的人),grey-headed people(灰发人),second childhood(第二少年期), feel one’s age(感觉上了年纪)等等。

    (3)疾病

    不同时代,不同文化,人们忌讳的话题也有所不同,但对疾病的恐惧却是

    相同的,人们向往健康,忌讳生病,也忌讳谈病。为了减轻病人的思想包袱、提高病人的心理承受能力,增强他们战胜疾病的心理,在偶尔必不可免要提及时,人们常用委婉语来代之。 “疾病”(disease)这一词常用委婉语“trouble”替换,如:lung trouble(肺病)、liver trouble(肝炎)、heart trouble(心脏病)、stomach trouble(胃病)等。现代英语中还常用以缩写字母替代病名的全称,从而达到委婉表达的目的,如:T.B=tuberculosis)结核病;V.D.C(=venereal disease)性病;flu(=influenza)流行性感冒等。又如,英语中用under the weather(身体不适)来代替sick(病);用mental health center(精神健康中心)代替madhouse(疯人院)或mental hospital(精神病医院);用social disease代替venereal disease(性病);用the old men’s friend(老年人之友)代替pneumonia(肺炎);用big Clong illness代替cancer(癌症);用irregularity(不规则)代替constipation(便秘);用Hansen’s disease(汉森之病)代替leprosy(麻风病)等等。

    (4)生理缺陷

    一般有生理缺陷的人都很忌讳别人直截了当地谈论他们的缺陷,而别人也

    不愿去伤害他们的自尊。解决这一矛盾的最佳方法便是使用委婉语。

    “瘸子”和“跛子”是比较难听的字眼,所以人们常常用“腿脚不方便”来代替它。英语中用physically handicapped(生理上有缺陷的)或physically inconvenienced(行动不便的)代替crippled。学校里的special students是指残疾学生;visually retarded students指盲人学生。而a Down’s baby(患唐氏综合症的婴儿)指的是a mongol baby(先天愚型的婴儿)mental difficiency(智力缺陷)指的是retarded (智力低下的);而deaf(耳聋的)则用hard of hearing(听觉困难的)auditory-impaired(听觉损伤的)代替。

     

    《三》掩饰功能

     

    委婉语的使用常常具有一定的欺骗性,它像一层美丽又诱人的外衣,使人们不能一下子看清事物的内在本质。它的丑陋隐藏于美好之中,掩盖了事实的真相。

    (1)政治、军事领域

    政治、军事、外交是委婉语盛行的领域。“日常生活中的委婉语是为了‘避讳’或‘礼貌’,而政治生活中委婉语却以‘伪装’(disguise)为目的的。”西方政客们最钟情于委婉语,并滥用委婉语来缓解气氛、淡化焦点、掩盖矛盾、粉饰现实,以达到不可告人的目的。

    2003年,美国人在对伊拉克的战争中,为了掩盖其暴行,把大规模的空中狂轰滥炸说成是“action of decapitation”(斩首行动)。把一次既没有合法性又不人道的侵略“occupation” 堂而皇之地冠以“liberation”(解放),把自己打扮成了维护伊拉克和平(“Iraqi Freedom”是这次英美联军对伊行动的代号)而战争的解放者。在战争中伊拉克的平民伤亡“civilian casualties”被称为“collateral damage”(附带的损伤)。1983年,美国入侵格林纳达为“a rescue mission”(援救任务),空袭利比亚为“surgical strikes”(外科手术式的打击),连鬼鬼祟祟的偷袭“surprise attack”也美其名曰“先发制人的攻击”(pre-emptive strikes)。又如美国人在越南战争中,把对越南贫民的杀戮称为wasting the enemy(消耗敌人);把aggression(侵略)说成invasion(进入)或involvement(介入);把attack(进攻)说成pacify the area(使有战争的地区实现和平)。这些军事委婉语具有相当大的欺骗性,无非是想掩盖战争的恐怖和残酷性,混淆视听以欺骗普通大众。

    (2)经济

    不同国家,不同政党,不同阶级,不同团体都可以将语言作为工具来替自己的利益说话。在世界各国中贫穷、落后为人们所不齿,自然要想方设法加以掩盖,社会、政府、传媒也想尽一切花言巧语予以虚饰,结果委婉语层出不穷。

    例如:把economic crisis(经济危机)说成depression(萧条),更有甚者,不承认有经济萧条,只有经济不景气;商品匮乏是have the low availability factor;商品降价/涨价是downgrade economic readjustment/upward price readjustment。在社会生活中,明明是relief(救济)却要说成welfare(福利);明明是strike(罢工)却说成industrial action(工业行动);明明是slum(贫民区)却用substandard housing(次标准房)代替以保护居住者和政府的自尊心;明明是穷人(poor)却叫做needy(手头拮据者),disadvantaged(处于不利地位的人),让人觉得这个国家富得连一个穷人也没有。

    (3)犯罪

    英语中有关犯罪的委婉语,主要是由犯罪分子创造和使用的。他们编出了一套暗语,目的是为了美化和掩饰自己的丑行。

    如用gentleman of the road(大路男子)代替robber(拦路贼);用a five fingers(五指全能者)代替pickpocket(扒手);用hero of the underground(地下英雄)代替heroin(海洛因);用the candy man(糖果商)代替drug pusher(毒品贩子);用surreptitious entry(秘密进入)代替burglary(夜盗);甚至用intelligence gathering(搜集情报)代替wiretapping(窃听);而murder(谋杀)则被说成put away(除掉),rub out(抹掉)等等.

    对其被关押场所的委婉说法更加有趣,如用the rehabilitation home(感化院,健康中心)代替bridewell(监狱,拘留所);而prison(监狱)则用the big house(大房子),correctional center(改正中心)代替;坐牢(to be in prison)也用to live at the government’s expense等代替。

    而对那些刺耳、难听的犯罪行业,也有其专门的委婉语为其掩饰,如把prostitution(卖淫)说成the oldest profession in the world(世界上最古老的职业);把prostitute(妓女)说成street walker(街头女郎),call girl(应召女郎),a lady of the town(城镇上的女人)等。

    《四》积极功能

    词有褒贬义之分,当一个词带有使人产生不快的语义时,才会被委婉语所代替。虽然在语义上委婉语与被代替的词相近,但委婉语的使用却是化消极因素为积极因素。委婉语的使用具有积极功能。

    (1)学校教育

    策略的表达在学校教育,尤其是小学教育中显得非常重要,教师对学生的态度和评价会对学生的心理产生十分微妙的影响;温和的态度、尊重的语言、鼓励性的评价会产生积极的心理暗示,进而形成良好的教育氛围。

    如在谈到学习成绩差的学生(below average student)时,可以说:“ she/he is working at her /his own level”(她/他在根据自己的水平学习)或“she/he has got less than a passing grade”(她/他的成绩稍低以通过水平)。而can do better with help(通过帮助能做的更好)则指反应比较迟钝的学生;学生考试作弊则是to depend on others to do her/his work(依靠他人来完成工作)。也不能说学生stupid(笨)、slow(迟钝)或者lazy(),而要讲underachiever(未能发挥潜力的学生),这样听起来不那么刺耳,不会伤害别人的自尊心。

    这类的词语还有如:naughty (淘气)over active (过分活泼)lazy: He needs ample supervision in order to work well.(使他努力学习需要充分监督);Lie: mispresent the facts; He has difficulty distinguishing between imaginary and factual information.(他在区分想象材料和事实材料方面显得困难)Steel: He needs help in learning to respect the property rights of others.(他在学会尊重别人财产权方面需要帮助) 

    (2)经济、贫穷、失业

    委婉语的积极功能在经济方面也是显而易见的,不论是贫困国家、或个人失业者都从这里得到莫大的安慰,鼓励他们继续努力,给他们希望。如把debt(负债)称为cash advance(预支);把poor(贫穷)称为negative saver(积蓄为负值的人);把ghetto(贫民窟)称为inner city(内城区);把unemployment 称为“between jobs”(两份工作之间的歇息);把unemployed(失业的)称为involuntarily leisured(不情愿的悠闲者)等等。

     

    《五》礼貌功能

     

    委婉语的最后一个,也是最重要的一个功能是礼貌功能,即在交际中避免冒昧与非礼,掩盖羞于启齿的、令人难看的事实。当迫不得已要涉及时,要选择一些被认为含蓄、高雅、令人愉快的委婉语,从而避免使人产生不快,达到最佳交际效果。

    (1)

    性,不管古今中外,都属于禁忌的范围,中国人把性病称为花柳病,乱搞男女关系叫寻花问柳,英语亦然。对涉及性的一切词语一般都用委婉语来取代,对性器官、性知识、性行为自不必说,就是正常的怀孕等容易让人联想到性的词语也常用委婉语。

    在性器官方面,英语中用private parts(隐秘部位)代替sexual organs(性器官);在性行为(intercourse)方面,也有许多委婉语如:to have carnal knowledge(获得肉体知识), to sleep with(与某人睡觉)等;怀孕(to be pregnant)的婉言有to become a mother(将成为母亲), to be in a family way(将按家庭方式走),等。To be in trouble(陷入困境) 则用以指未婚先孕,而避孕(contraception)则用birth control(出生率的控制)和family planning(家庭计划)来婉指。   

    与性有关的委婉语还有一种,即娼妓与卖淫。把娼妓(prostitute)称为

    streetwalker assignation(街上约会);把卖淫(prostitution)称为to go on

    the street,to live on the streets(以大街作为生存方式)等。

       其他这方面的委婉语还有如:用adult film(成人电影)代替pornographic

    movie(黄色电影);还把有关性的知识knowledge about sex说成是the facts

    of life(生命的本质);把free love(非法同居)叫做trial marriage(试

    婚)等等。

    (2)人体

    “人是有精神属性的,审美、道德观念渗透到各个领域,包括人的身体。”人体的某些部位不宜直接论及,应用含蓄曲折的表达方式。

    例如Naked(裸体)的委婉语有:in a state of nature(处于自然状态)in one’s birthday suit(身着生日服装)in one’s innocence(“处于无罪状态”)[17]再如:buttocks(臀部)用behind(后面)、backsides(后部)代替;belly(肚皮)abdomen(腹部)代替等。

    (3)排泄

    在交际中注重选用文雅的词语是各民族语言的优良传统,历来一些粗俗,不雅的事物譬如人体排泄的秽物以及其场所等,通常以婉称取而代之。

    “厕所”toilet一词,在许多文化中都被认为是粗俗、肮脏、难登大雅之堂,一般不宜直接说出口。在英语中通常用:power room(化妆室)restroom(休息室)men's(男士房间)、women's(女士房间)等来表示。还用tissue paper(手纸)来替代toilet paper(卫生纸)。同时人们去厕所大小便的婉转表达更是多种多样。英美人常常会说to wash one’s hand(去洗手),to answer the call of nature(响应大自然的号召),to spend a penny(去花个钱),do one's business(尽自己之责)等等。这方面的婉称还有如把fart说成wind from behind(从后面来的风)、pass air(排气)、make a noise(弄点响声)等等。

    三、结语

    总而言之,通过对英语中较为广泛的委婉语的用法及其功能的观察、思考与分类,揭示了委婉语已越来越深刻地影响着的学习、生活与工作,因此对委婉语的学习与研究具有非常重要的实践意义和现实意义。作为第二语言的学习者,我们只有熟悉其在社会交际中的实际应用与功能,才能更准确地理解它,并能更完美地使用它。

  • Shanghai Old City God's Temple

    2007-9-19

    Shanghai Old City God's Temple (Lao cheng huang miao)is a major Taoist temple in Shanghai. It is located in the area south of Yan'an Road on the Fangbang Zhong Road. 

    During the Ming Dynasty, Zhangshouyue, the head of Shanghai County, dedicated a temple to the local city god. Since then, the City God's Temple has been destroyed and rebuilded several times. The current temple was built in 1926. During the the war of resistance against Japanese invasion during World War II, local merchants built a new City God's Temple in the Foreign Concession (between Lianyun Road and West Jinling Road).

    That area is now a highrise residence building. The "former" temple is known as the Old City God's Temple. The Old City God's Temple and the enclose Yuyuan are not only famous tourist sites but also popular shopping attractions. There are boutiques, shops selling local specialties, as well as large jewelry stores, department stores and fabulous local snack restaurants to be found here.

    There is one famouse saying: If you went to Shanghai and had not visited the Shanghai Old City God's Temple, then you have not visited Shanghai!

    Visit The Old City God's Temple, enjoy your life!!!

  • Great Mother

    2007-9-18

    I am sure every mother is a great mother!But just one week before, I even confused about my mother's love, I could not forgive myself for it...

    Last weekend, my friend give birth to her small baby, I was on her side three days, accompanying with her and waiting for her baby to come to our colorful world...So the first time, I know how hard for a woman to give birth to her baby! How great the mother is! Every mother suffered a lot in parturition, which a man is inconceivable, but they did not care to much about theirself, but the small baby's safety and health!

    So I thought of my great mother!!! She is an ordinary woman in the remote country and have not gone out there...But she work hard and strong-mind, she does not like to speak to much, and she did not know how to express her feelings to us, she never call me however how far I am...so I had even confused about my mother's love, I had even thought my mother did not love me...But now I know...I can feel my mother's love...She just think I am her child, so we can understand each other by heart not words...

    I also thought of many bypast affairs, when I was in the university, how hard the life is for my mother to support me, and how many afflictions my mother suffered to prepare my tuition fee and cost of life...How can I doubt about my mother's love...

    Love your great mother from now on and always with an indebted heart...

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